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Excerpta Dermatologia Botanica: Acanthaceae
A work derived from BOTANICAL DERMATOLOGY by John Mitchell & Arthur Rook, originally published in 1979 by Greengrass Ltd, Vancouver [ISBN 0-88978-047-1] and its subsequent online re-incarnation as BoDD – Botanical Dermatology Database.
None of the information presented here should be regarded as a recommendation by the author(s) on how to investigate or treat any particular disease or disorder.
Richard J. Schmidt
Penarth, Wales, UK
Keywords: contact allergens, lapachol, mechanical injury, naphthoquinones, sesamin, sesamolin, traditional medicine, tryptanthrin
Suggested citation: Schmidt RJ (2025) Acanthaceae. Allergopedia 1: 4. doi: 10.14320/allergopedia.20250104
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ACANTHACEAE(Acanthus or Ruellia family)• Medicinal / Folk-medicinal aspects: Some species provide useful topical antifungal activity; others reportedly provide healing activity when applied to boils or infected wounds. • This is a large family comprising, according to Mabberley (2017), 3800 species in 202 genera. It is closely allied to the Scrophulariaceae. Members are found mostly in the tropics, but occur also in the United States, the Mediterranean region, and in Australia. On the basis of phylogenetic evidence, plants formerly classified in the Avicenniaceae are now placed in the Acanthaceae (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group 2003). The 4–7 species in its single genus Avicennia L. are found on tropical coasts as constituents of mangrove vegetation (Mabberley 2017). Earlier classifications have included these plants in the Verbenaceae. The timber from all species is practically identical and has been investigated as a source of paper pulp (Record & Hess 1943, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Some members of the genera Acanthus L., Aphelandra R.Br., Barleria L., Crossandra Salisb., Eranthemum L., Fittonia Coëm., Justicia L., Strobilanthes Blume, and Thunbergia Retz. are grown as houseplants or as garden ornamentals (Hunt 1968/70).
In the traditional medicine of South-East Asia, the seeds are crushed and applied as a poultice on boils; or after roasting and pulverising they are taken as a depurative by people afflicted with boils. Also, the roots prepared as a decoction are drunk as a remedy for shingles (Perry & Metzger 1980).
The plant has mostly soft, smooth leaves, but it features spiny reddish-purple bracts around its snapdragon-like flowers.a,b Acanthus Mollis Leaf Extract [INCI; CAS RN 90320-09-5; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]c is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient purported to have skin conditioning properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
The leaves are extremely spiny, the spines being sharp and rigid, making them difficult plants to handle without discomfort.a
The plant is the source of a crude drug known variously as king of bitters, Indian echinacea, kalmegh, creat, chuan xin lian (穿心莲), etc., used for treating a variety of ailments in India and elsewhere. Begum & Nath (2000) noted that in the traditional medicine of Northeastern India, the leaves are pounded with water and the supernatant liquid given orally in the treatment of abscesses. In the traditional medicine of South-East Asia, the crushed leaves have been applied to itching skin eruptions when other remedies have failed (Perry & Metzger 1980). Andrographis Paniculata Extract and Andrographis Paniculata Leaf Extract [INCI; CAS RN 90244-84-1; both of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a are recognised cosmetic product ingredients purported to have astringent and skin conditioning properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). Lynne-Davies & Mitchell (1974) applied portions of the fresh leaf of Aphelandra squarrosa ‘Louisae’ to the backs of 2 males for 48 hours under occlusion. Neither irritant reactions nor delayed flares occurred.
von Reis & Lipp (1982) found an herbarium note stating that the tree contains a resin that irritates the eyes when the wood is sawn. The French Guiana Palikur mix stem and leaf with a smaller amount of Rhabdadenia biflora (Jacq.) Müll.Arg. (fam. Apocynaceae) and Nicotiana tabacum L. (fam. Solanaceae) in a soothing remedy for stingray wounds (DeFilipps et al. 2004). Referring to Avicennia nitida Jacq., Ainslie (1937) noted that in Nigerian traditional medicine, the powdered bark used as a paste is efficacious in dermatitis of various kinds. Irvine (1961) noted that in West African traditional medicine, the dry pulverised bark of Avicennia africana P.Beauv. is used as a paste for parasitic skin diseases, itch, and dermatitis. Record & Hess (1943), describing the black mangrove found in southern Florida, the West Indies, and through Central America to the north coast of South America, [incorrectly] considered Avicennia nitida Jacq. to be conspecific with Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh., and stated that the yellowish powder contained in the heartwood is lapachol. According to Bournot (1913), the heartwood of Avicennia tomentosa Jacq. yields lapachol. Lapachol is a known elicitor of contact dermatitis (Schulz et al. 1968, Schulz et al. 1977), and is also present in Tectona grandis L.f. (fam. Labiatae) and other species of timber trees, particularly those in the family Bignoniaceae. Perhaps reflecting past botanical nomenclatural uncertainty, the common name white mangrove is also used for Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. [see below] and for the unrelated Laguncularia racemosa (L.) C.F.Gaertn. (fam. Combretaceae). Avicennia alba Blume is a separate accepted species that also is known by the common name white mangrove.a
Record & Hess (1943) stated that the yellowish powder contained in the heartwood is lapachol [but see Avicennia germinans (L.) L. above]. The sapwood of Avicennia officinalis L. yields a resin that has been used in the Philippines as a local application in snake-bite, and in Western Java as a oral contraceptive. In India as well as in the Philippines the seed cooked in water is applied as a maturative poultice and as a cicatrizing agent in ulcers (Quisumbing 1951, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Perry & Metzger 1980). A cataplasm of the unripe fruit has been applied to sores and for healing the skin lesions of smallpox (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Nadkarni 1976, Perry & Metzger 1980). The following species (and others) are described as spiny by Darbyshire et al. (2019), variously having spiny stems, leaf margins, bracteoles, and/or calyces:
Other spiny Barleria species are considered in the monographs below.
This prickly shrub has been used as a hedge plant (Howes 1946). Perry & Metzger (1980) noted that in Chinese traditional medicine, the plant is crushed and applied to malignant sores. Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) record that the Masai use the thorns to prick the skin around a snake bite in order to permit the sucking out or pressing out of blood. This species bears sharp spines at its leaf bases (Anon 2003),a which may cause mechanical injury (Oakes & Butcher 1962). It has been used as a hedge plant (Howes 1946).
This prickly shrub has been used as a hedge plant in the tropics (Howes 1946), but is regarded as a serious environmental weed in Australia. The bases to the leaves are protected by three to five sharp, pale-coloured spines, each about 15 mm in length (Anon 2003).a von Reis & Lipp (1982) found an herbarium note on a specimen collected in Tanganyika [now Tanzania] stating that in disease that blisters hands and feet, the thorns [are] used to prick the blisters, [and the] leaves [are] rubbed on them. According to Nadkarni (1976), the juice of this plant is used in Indian traditional medicine as an application to the feet in the rainy season in order to prevent cracks and lacerations; a paste of the root is applied to boils and glandular swellings; and a medicated oil prepared from this plant is applied to unhealthy wounds. In Indonesian traditional medicine, the roots are finely ground, mixed with lemon juice [Citrus × limon (L.) Osbeck, fam. Rutaceae], and applied to ringworm (Perry & Metzger 1980). Barleria Prionitis Bark Extract, Barleria Prionitis Extract, Barleria Prionitis Powder, Barleria Prionitis Root Extract, and Barleria Prionitis Stem Extract [INCI; all of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]b are recognised cosmetic product ingredients variously purported to have uses in oral care, skin conditioning, and fragrancing (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
This species, which forms a much-branched spiny shrublet, is one of the most widespread and variable species of Barleria in Namibia. Together with Barleria irritans Nees and Barleria bechuanensis C.B.Clarke from South Africa, it forms a difficult species complex (Darbyshire et al. 2019). Both the common names and the specific epithet irritans allude to its hazardous nature. This is a genus of 128 species found from Africa across to Vietnam and Java.a Almost all species within this genus possess a characteristically spiny, prickly, or thorny growth habit featuring strongly spinescent leaf margins, spiny bracts, or heavily armed cushions. The following species are representative:
Upto 2000 µg/g (ppm) nickel has been found in the leaves of this plant growing in the ultramafic soils of the Great Dyke in Zimbabwe (Brooks & Yang 1984, Baker & Brooks 1989). The contact sensitising capacity of nickel and its salts is well documented (Malten et al. 1976, Cronin 1980, Spruit et al. 1980, Fowler 1990, Uter et al. 2016) but it remains to be determined whether the nickel compounds in this plant present a dermatological hazard. In southern-African traditional medicine, the plant is used as an application to wounds (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). In the Transvaal the African rubs the root on the skin to relieve itching (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
In Nigerian traditional medicine, the leaves pounded and made into a paste in their own juice, are applied externally for yaws (Ainslie 1937). Clinacanthus Nutans Leaf Extract [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient purported to have skin conditioning and skin protecting properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
Referring to Justicia calycina, DeFilipps et al. (2004) noted that the juice from macerated leaves is used for treating eczema, ringworm, and sores by the Guyana Patamona.
All studies cited here refer to Justicia pectoralis rather than to Dianthera pectoralis, it having only recentlya become recognised from phylogenetic studies that New World ‘justicioids’ including Justicia pectoralis Jacq. could be treated as members of a separate genus, namely Dianthera L. Accordingly, Dianthera pectoralis (Jacq.) Murray is now the accepted name.b von Reis & Lipp (1982) found an herbarium note on a specimen collected in Columbia that an infusion of the plant is used for conjunctivitis. Wong (1976) noted in a review of folk medicinal plants from Trinidad that a leaf poultice is applied to bleeding wounds. Further, the plant is recognised as a vulnerary in Jamaican folk medicine (Mills et al. 1986); and in the traditional medicine of the Guianas, the leaf is macerated for a vulnerary, and also applied externally for haematoma (DeFilipps et al. 2004). In eastern Cuba, a decoction is prepared from the aerial parts of this species together with the aerial parts of Ocimum basilicum L. (fam. Labiatae) and of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Vahl (fam. Verbenaceae) for use in the bath and orally in the treatment of allergic eruptions (Cano & Volpato 2004).
In a review of folk medicinal plants from Trinidad, Wong (1976) noted that Justicia secunda is used [in an unspecified way] in herb baths for [unspecified] rashes and amenorrhea. In a review of ethnomedicines used by hunters for themselves and their hunting dogs in Trinidad, Lans et al. (2001) noted that dogs with rashes are bathed with St John's bush (Justicia secunda), adding that the plant imparts a red colour to the bath water.
According to Perry & Metzger (1980), the plant is used in Taiwanese traditional medicine as an application for the eyes or in an eye wash. In the traditional medicine of Natal [now KwaZulu-Natal], the crushed leaves of Peristrophe hensii are used as a poultice for sore eyes (Hulme 1954). According to Perry & Metzger (1980), the juice from the finely crushed leafy tops is used in the Soenda Islands (Indonesia) as drops for inflammation of the eyes.
In the traditional medicine of South East Asia, the leaves (preferably the red, variegated form) are mostly used as a poultice on cuts, wounds, all kinds of swellings, ulcerating breasts or other ulcers, furuncles and certain skin complaints. Fishermen in the northern part of the Celebes often use the leaves to treat the stab-wounds caused by venomous fish. Within a few hours, such wounds become red, swollen, very hot and painful, later developing an abscess which takes weeks or months to heal. If the mashed leaves are applied at once and the poultice changed every six hours, within 24 hours the symptoms of sepsis disappear (Perry & Metzger 1980).
A native of India, the cladodes (modified stems that function as leaves) of this erect annual herb bear two spines at their tip. An accidental prick from these spines can be very painful and stinging.a
The leaves from this species are used in the traditional medicine of South East Asia for poulticing fresh wounds, sprained limbs, swellings, abscesses, boils, and for headache (Perry & Metzger 1980).
The plants bear a straight sharp yellow spine in their leaf axils (Agharkar 1953). The leaves from this species are used in the traditional medicine of South East Asia for poulticing fresh wounds, sprained limbs, swellings, abscesses, boils, and for headache (Perry & Metzger 1980).
Nadkarni (1976) noted that in Indian traditional medicine, the leaves of Hygrophila obovata are used to reduce oedematous swellings. According to Perry & Metzger 1980, the leaves from this species are used in the traditional medicine of South East Asia for poulticing fresh wounds, sprained limbs, swellings, abscesses, boils, and for headache.
In the traditional medicine of Natal [now KwaZulu-Natal], the crushed leaves of Hypoestes antennifera are used to make poultices for eye affectations (Hulme 1954).
Nadkarni (1976), in a treatise on Indian traditional medicine, noted that in Burma and Northern India, the leaves are applied locally in the form of a poultice on rheumatic joints, inflammatory swellings and in neuralgia; that a strong decoction is an efficacious fomentation to rheumatic and painful swellings; that it is also a good application for scabies and other skin complaints; and that the fresh flowers are bound over the eyes in ophthalmia. In Nepal, the fresh leaves are crushed and the paste applied to rheumatic joints (Joshi & Joshi 2000). Citing earlier literature referring to Adhatoda vasica, Biswas & Mukherjee (2003) noted that in Ayurvedic medicine the leaves are used in the treatment of diabetic carbuncles. Sharma & Joshi (2004) noted that in Indian veterinary practice, a paste prepared from turmeric (Curcuma longa L., fam. Zingiberaceae) and leaves of Adhatoda vasica with cow urine is rubbed on skin affected with prurigo and eczema; and Jaiswal et al. (2004) referred to the use of an ointment prepared from an alcoholic extract of Adhatoda vasica in white petroleum jelly being used for tissue healing in animals. Justicia Adhatoda Leaf Extract and Justicia Adhatoda Root Extract [INCI; both of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a are recognised cosmetic product ingredients purported to have skin conditioning properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
Referring to Adhatoda buchholzii, Ainslie (1937) noted that in Nigerian traditional medicine, the green leaves are pounded into a paste and applied externally for rheumatism. Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) noted that in southern-African traditional medicine the leaves are made into an ointment with butter for application to pimples, pustules, and blisters.
In Nigerian traditional medicine, the root, bruised and mixed with lime juice, is applied to ringworm and cutaneous diseases; the leaf is also used for these purposes (Ainslie 1937).
According to Agharkar (1953) in his treatise on Indian traditional medicine, an oil prepared from the leaves is said to be useful in eczema. Nadkarni (1976), referring to Gendarussa vulgaris, makes no mention of this use. However, he did note that an infusion of the leaves mixed with oil is used as an application to glandular swellings of the neck. Begum & Nath (2000) noted that in the traditional medicine of Northeastern India, the leaves are crushed and the resulting paste applied to boils.
In the Bulamogi county of Uganda, the leaves from Asystasia schimperi, warmed to make a poultice, are used to treat dermatitis (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Referring to Adhatoda robusta, Ainslie (1937) noted that in Nigerian traditional medicine, the green leaves are pounded into a paste and applied externally for rheumatism. According to an herbarium note found on a specimen of Justicia glabra collected in Tanganyika [now Tanzania], the green leaves pounded up and mixed with butter are put on a hot iron and then put on boils as a plaster (von Reis & Lipp 1982). The leaf is used in East African traditional medicine as a remedy for pimples (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). In a treatise on Indian Materia Medica, Nadkarni (1976) noted that the bruised leaves from a plant with the Tamil name Sivanarvembu, which he identified as Justicia tranquebariensis [no botanical authority], are applied to contusions. Sivanar Vembu may refer to the botanically unrelated Indigofera aspalathoides Vahl ex DC. (fam. Leguminosae);a and Justicia tranquebariensis may refer to Justicia tranquebariensis Roxb., which is now recognised as a synonym of Justicia glauca Rottler.b Referring to Adhatoda tristis, Ainslie (1937) noted that in Nigerian traditional medicine, the green leaves are pounded into a paste and applied externally for rheumatism. According to Perry & Metzger (1980), the Taiwanese chew the leaves and apply them to wounds.
Begum & Nath (2000) noted that in the traditional medicine of Northeastern India, a decoction prepared from the whole plant is given orally in the treatment of measles.
A decoction prepared from the crushed plant is used as a wash to treat skin rashes by the Surinam Akuriyo; and a decoction prepared from the crushed leaves and rasped bark is used as a wash for treatment of athlete's foot by the Surinam Tirio and Wayana (DeFilipps et al. 2004).
Nadkarni (1976) noted in a treatise on Indian materia medica that [an unspecified preparation of] this plant is used [in an unspecified way] to treat ringworm. Sharma & Joshi (2004) seemingly echoed this use, listing Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus as a treatment for ringworm in Indian veterinary practice, but again provided no further detail. Phidiasia lindavii, endemic to the old serpentine soils of the Sierra del Cristal and Sierra de Nipe in Cuba, was noted to have a moderate ability to accumulate Ni, a level of up to 1853 µg/g (ppm) nickel having been found in leaf samples (Reeves et al. 1999). The contact sensitising capacity of nickel and its salts is well documented (Malten et al. 1976, Cronin 1980, Spruit et al. 1980, Fowler 1990, Uter et al. 2016) but it remains to be determined whether the nickel compounds in this plant present a dermatological hazard.
This spiny species can cause mechanical injury (Oakes & Butcher 1962). In the Philippines, a decoction of the whole plant is used to treat aphthae, and to heal wounds and ulcers; and the leaves are applied to boils (Perry & Metzger 1980). Leaf samples from a plant found growing on ultramafic soils in Sabah, Malaysia, tentatively identified as Ptyssiglottis fusca, was found to contain up to 1160 µg/g (ppm) nickel (van der Ent et al. 2015). The contact sensitising capacity of nickel and its salts is well documented (Malten et al. 1976, Cronin 1980, Spruit et al. 1980, Fowler 1990, Uter et al. 2016) but it remains to be determined whether the nickel compounds in this plant present a dermatological hazard.
In China and India, the leaves and woody root [of Rhinacanthus communis Nees], made into a paste with lime juice, have been employed in eczema, ringworm, and dhobie itch (Dymock 1876, Anon 1881, Piffard 1881, Felter & Lloyd 1898, Nadkarni 1976). Referring to Rhinacanthus nasutus, Perry & Metzger (1980) listed to a number of similar preparations used in the traditional medicine of East and South-East Asia to treat cutaneous affections such as herpes and a skin disease known locally as cascado [= stephanofiliariasis, a bovine dermatitis caused by Stephanofilaria dedoesi Ihle & Ihle-Landenberg, 1933, fam. Filariidae; a nematode]. Begum & Nath (2000) noted that in the traditional medicine of Northeastern India, the root is pounded with a few match tips, mixed with vaseline, and applied in the treatment of ringworm. Sharma & Joshi (2004) included Rhinacanthus nasuta [sic] root as a treatment for ringworm and eczema in a list of plants used in Indian veterinary practice, but provided no further detail. According to Anon (1881), the antifungal agent is rhinacanthin, a quinone-like substance resembling chrysophanic acid. In more recent studies (see Wu et al. 1998), a range of structurally-related naphthoquinones named rhinacanthin-A, rhinacanthin-B, rhinacanthin-C, etc. have been characterised from the roots of Rhinacanthus nasutus along with other dermatologically significant substances including dehydro-α-lapachone, methyl vanillate, and allantoin. Rhinacanthus Communis Extract, Rhinacanthus Nasutus Extract, Rhinacanthus Nasutus Leaf Extract, Rhinacanthus Nasutus Leaf Powder, and Rhinacanthus Nasutus Root Powder [INCI; all of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a are recognised cosmetic product ingredients variously purported to have astringent, skin conditioning, and humectant properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
Reeves (2003) found 1790–2190 µg/g (ppm) nickel in leaves from this taxon growing on ultramafic soil in Queensland, Australia, showing it to be a hyperaccumulator of this element. The contact sensitising capacity of nickel and its salts is well documented (Malten et al. 1976, Cronin 1980, Spruit et al. 1980, Fowler 1990, Uter et al. 2016) but it remains to be determined whether the nickel compounds in this plant present a dermatological hazard.
According to Agharkar (1953) and Nadkarni (1976) in their treatises on Indian traditional medicine, the leaf juice from Justicia procumbens is squeezed into the eyes in cases of ophthalmia. In the Philippines, the leaves of Justicia procumbens are used externally as an astringent in the cure of certain [unspecified] skin eruptions (Perry & Metzger 1980). Referring to Justicia simplex D.Don, Ghosal et al. (1979) reported the isolation of sesamin, sesamolin, and the structurally similar simplexolin from an extract of the whole plant. Sesamin and sesamolin have been shown to elicit dermatitis in persons with contact sensitivity to sesame seed oil [see Sesamum indicum L., fam. Pedaliaceae].
The leaves of an entire plant are decocted in water and this preparation used by the Criollos herdsmen of Northwestern Argentina to wash wounds (Scarpa 2004). According to Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) the crushed root is used in Tanganyika [now Tanzania] as an application to wounds.
Referring to Strobilanthes acrocephalus, Begum & Nath (2000), citing an earlier source, noted that in the traditional medicine of Northeastern India, the leaves are crushed and the juice applied in the treatment of ringworm. This species, which grows in India, may cause painful itching, swelling, and blistering when handled (Behl & Captain 1979). In Indian traditional medicine, the juice of the flowers mixed with an equal quantity of the juice from Randia dumetorum Lam. (fam. Rubiaceae) flowers is smeared over bruises; and the juice of the bark mixed with an equal amount of juice from the bark of Eclipta alba Hassk. (fam. Compositae), boiled down to half its volume and mixed with old sesamum oil (Sesamum indicum L., fam. Pedaliaceae), a few peppercorns (Piper nigrum L., fam. Piperaceae), and ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, fam. Zingiberaceae) is used externally for parotitis (Nadkarni 1976).
Baphicacanthus cusia is recognised as one of the botanical sources of the traditional Chinese medicine known as qing dai (青黛) or Indigo Naturalis, which is used orally and by topical administration in the treatment of a variety of infective conditions including sores, ulcers, and abscesses, and also to stop bleeding.a,b,c Fresh juice from the leaves is used on Okinawa Island, Japan as a popular remedy for athlete's foot. The active principle was found to be an indoloquinazoline alkaloid named tryptanthrin (Honda & Tabata 1979).
Behl & Captain (1979) noted that Mackenziea integrifolia, which grows in India, may cause painful itching, swelling, and blistering when handled. Behl & Captain (1979), referring to Thelepaepale ixiocephalus, noted that this species may cause painful itching, swelling, and blistering when handled. Begum & Nath (2000), citing Maikhuri & Gangwar (1993), both referring to Strobilanthes scaber, noted that in the traditional medicine of Northeastern India, the young leaves are crushed and the extract applied in the treatment of itching.
In the Bulamogi county of Uganda, the leaves, made into a poultice, are applied to boils (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Perry & Metzger (1980) recorded that in China, the leaves are applied to wounds and ulcers; and that in the Malay Peninsula, the leaves are applied to cuts and boils. Thunbergia Laurifolia Leaf Extract [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient purported to have skin conditioning properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). References
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Allergopedia online: https://allergopedia.info • ISSN 3072-564X |
![[Lapachol]](Images/Lapachol.png)
![[Sesamin; Sesamolin]](Images/SesaminSesamolin.png)
![[Tryptanthrin]](Images/Tryptanthrin.png)